Pathophysiology of Coronary Artery Disease: Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a cardiovascular condition in which the coronary arteries become narrowed or obstructed, reducing the supply of oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle. It most commonly develops due to atherosclerosis, a process involving the accumulation of cholesterol, lipids, inflammatory cells, and fibrous tissue in the arterial…
Pathophysiology of Atherosclerosis: Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the arteries characterized by the accumulation of cholesterol, lipids, inflammatory cells, and fibrous tissue within the arterial wall. These deposits form structures called atherosclerotic plaques, which gradually narrow the arterial lumen and reduce blood flow to various organs. Atherosclerosis commonly affects the coronary arteries, cerebral…
Pathophysiology of Myocardial Infarction: Myocardial infarction (MI), commonly known as a heart attack, is a condition in which a portion of the heart muscle undergoes irreversible damage or death due to prolonged inadequate blood supply. It most commonly occurs when a coronary artery becomes obstructed by a blood clot formed over a ruptured or eroded…
Pathophysiology of Angina Pectoris: Angina pectoris is a clinical condition characterized by chest pain or discomfort that occurs when the heart muscle receives insufficient oxygen-rich blood to meet its metabolic requirements. It usually develops due to reduced blood flow through the coronary arteries, most commonly because of coronary artery disease. Angina is not usually associated…
Pathophysiology of Congestive Heart Failure: Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a clinical condition in which the heart is unable to pump blood effectively enough to meet the body’s metabolic requirements, or can do so only at the expense of increased filling pressures. It may occur due to impaired contraction, impaired relaxation, or a combination of…
Pathophysiology of Cardiac Arrhythmias: Cardiac arrhythmias are abnormalities in the rate, rhythm, or electrical conduction of the heart. Under normal conditions, electrical impulses originate from the sinoatrial (SA) node, which acts as the natural pacemaker of the heart. These impulses spread through the atria, pass through the atrioventricular (AV) node, and travel through the bundle…
Pathophysiology of hypertension: Hypertension, commonly known as high blood pressure, is a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. It is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, including stroke, heart attack, heart failure, and aneurysm, and can also lead to kidney failure, vision loss, and cognitive decline….
An Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a non-invasive diagnostic test that records the electrical activity of the heart over time. It is one of the most commonly used investigations for assessing cardiac function. The electrical activity recorded by an ECG originates from the cardiac conduction system and spreads through the atria and ventricles, producing coordinated…
Regulation of Blood Pressure: Blood pressure (BP) is the force exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood vessels. It is a critical parameter in the circulatory system, influencing the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to tissues and the removal of waste products. The regulation of blood pressure is a complex process involving multiple…
Cardiac output and the cardiac cycle are fundamental concepts in cardiovascular physiology, describing how the heart functions to pump blood throughout the body. Understanding these processes is crucial for assessing heart health and overall circulatory function. Cardiac Output (CO) Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute, usually measured in…