Aim: Recording Force of Air Expelled Using a Peak Flow Meter Introduction: A Peak Flow Meter (PFM) is a simple, portable, handheld device used to measure how fast a person can blow air out of their lungs. This measurement is known as the Peak Expiratory Flow Rate (PEFR) and reflects the function of the lungs…
Antiarrhythmic drugs are medications designed to prevent, control, or manage abnormal heart rhythms, known as arrhythmias. Arrhythmias are disturbances in the normal electrical activity of the heart, which can cause the heart to beat too quickly (tachycardia), too slowly (bradycardia), or irregularly. Classification of Antiarrhythmic drugs Anti-arrhythmic drugs are classified into four main classes based…
Anti-anginal drugs are medications designed to relieve or prevent angina pectoris, a condition characterized by chest pain or discomfort resulting from reduced blood flow to the heart muscle. These drugs aim to improve the blood supply to the heart, reduce the workload on the heart, and alleviate the symptoms of angina. Anti-anginal drugs can be…
Antihypertensive drugs are medications designed to lower high blood pressure, a condition known as hypertension. These drugs work by different mechanisms to reduce the resistance of blood vessels, decrease the volume of blood pumped by the heart, or both. The goal of antihypertensive therapy is to manage blood pressure within a normal range, thereby reducing…
The regulation of blood glucose levels is a complex and tightly controlled process involving several hormones. The two primary hormones responsible for maintaining blood glucose homeostasis are insulin and glucagon, both produced by the pancreas. 1. Insulin Source: Produced by beta cells in the pancreas. Function: Stimulates glucose uptake by cells, particularly in the liver,…
Glycogen Metabolism Pathways Glycogen metabolism involves the synthesis (glycogenesis) and breakdown (glycogenolysis) of glycogen, a highly branched polymer of glucose units. It is a dynamic process that helps regulate blood glucose levels and provides a rapid energy source when needed. 1. Glycogenesis: Enzyme: Glycogen synthase is the key enzyme in glycogenesis. Process: Glucose molecules are…
Introduction Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is one of the most extensively studied and widely distributed inherited metabolic disorders affecting humans. It is recognized as the most common enzymatic disorder of red blood cells, with an estimated global prevalence exceeding 400 million individuals. The disorder primarily affects populations living in or originating from regions where malaria…
1. Introduction Definition: The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP), also known as the Hexose Monophosphate (HMP) Shunt, is a metabolic pathway that operates alongside glycolysis, providing alternative routes for glucose metabolism. Purpose: The pathway serves both anabolic and catabolic functions, producing NADPH for biosynthetic processes and generating pentose sugars crucial for nucleotide synthesis. 2. Overview of…
1. Introduction of Citric Acid Cycle The Citric Acid Cycle (CAC), also known as the Krebs Cycle or the Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle, is a fundamental metabolic pathway that plays a central role in cellular respiration. It is an essential process occurring in the mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells,…
Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that involves the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors, primarily occurring in the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the kidneys. This biosynthetic process is crucial for maintaining blood glucose levels during fasting, starvation, or low-carbohydrate intake when glucose becomes limited. Gluconeogenesis reverses several steps of glycolysis, using substrates…
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