B.Pharma

Immunoglobulins (Antibodies) and Their Structure

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Introduction to Immunoglobulins Immunoglobulins (Ig), commonly known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and plasma cells in response to the presence of antigens. They are essential components of the adaptive immune system, functioning as the humoral arm of immunity. Immunoglobulins are crucial for recognition, neutralization, and elimination of pathogens including bacteria, viruses, … Read more

Immunity: Humoral and Cellular Immunity

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Introduction to Immunity The term immunity is derived from the Latin word immunitas, meaning “freedom from” or “exemption.” In biological terms, immunity refers to the ability of a living organism to resist or eliminate invading infectious agents, foreign particles, and harmful substances. It is a complex, highly organized defense system involving a network of specialized … Read more

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

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1. Introduction The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a groundbreaking molecular biology technique that enables the selective amplification of a specific DNA sequence from a tiny amount of starting genetic material. This technique was developed by Kary Mullis in 1983, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993. PCR has revolutionized … Read more

Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology and Genetic Engineering

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Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology and Genetic Engineering in the Production of Interferon, Vaccines (Hepatitis B), and Hormones (Insulin) Introduction Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology and genetic engineering have transformed modern medicine by enabling the large-scale production of therapeutic biomolecules that were once rare, costly, or difficult to extract from natural sources. By manipulating genetic material … Read more

Recombinant DNA Technology and Applications

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1. Introduction Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology represents one of the most transformative advances in modern biological science. It involves the artificial recombination of genetic material from different sources to create new DNA sequences that can be inserted into host organisms for expression. This process allows scientists to modify the genetic blueprint of organisms, giving rise … Read more

Study of Cloning Vectors, Restriction Endonucleases, and DNA Ligase

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Introduction The field of genetic engineering and molecular biology has revolutionized the biological sciences, enabling scientists to manipulate genetic material for research, industrial, agricultural, and therapeutic applications. Central to this manipulation are three essential tools — cloning vectors, restriction endonucleases, and DNA ligase. Together, these molecular instruments form the backbone of recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology, … Read more

Microparticles: Definition, Advantages, and Disadvantages

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Definition of Microparticles Microparticles are small, solid particles typically ranging from 1 to 1000 microns in diameter. These particles can be composed of a variety of materials such as polymers, lipids, proteins, or ceramics. Microparticles are often used in drug delivery systems, biomedical applications, and other industrial purposes. The core function of microparticles is to … Read more

Microcapsules: Definition, Advantages, and Disadvantages

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Definition of Microcapsules Microcapsules are small, spherical particles that consist of a core material (typically an active ingredient like a drug, nutrient, or bioactive compound) surrounded by a protective shell or coating. The core material can be liquid, solid, or gas, and the shell is typically made from biocompatible materials, such as polymers, lipids, or … Read more

Microspheres: Definition, Advantages, and Disadvantages

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Definition of Microspheres Microspheres are small, spherical particles typically ranging from 1 to 1000 microns in size. They are commonly used in drug delivery systems, diagnostics, and other pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. Microspheres are made from various materials, including polymers, lipids, and ceramics. These particles can encapsulate active ingredients such as drugs, enzymes, or other … Read more

Microencapsulation: Definition, Advantages, and Disadvantages

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Microencapsulation

Microencapsulation is a process where active substances (such as drugs, nutrients, or bioactive compounds) are enclosed within a protective coating or shell, typically in the micron or sub-micron size range (1 to 1000 microns). The primary goal is to protect the active ingredient from environmental factors (e.g., light, moisture, air) or to control the release … Read more