“Pathophysiology is an essential subject in pharmacy that focuses on the functional and structural changes in the body caused by diseases. It helps students understand disease mechanisms and supports rational drug therapy.”
Depression is a common mental health disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest or pleasure in activities, and a range of physical and cognitive symptoms. Clinically referred to as major depressive disorder (MDD), it significantly impairs an individual’s daily functioning and quality of life. Depression is distinct from typical mood fluctuations and…
A stroke, often referred to as a “brain attack,” occurs when blood flow to a specific area of the brain is interrupted. This disruption deprives brain cells of oxygen, causing them to die. As brain cells die, functions controlled by the affected area of the brain, such as memory and muscle control, are lost. Stroke,…
Parkinson’s Disease: In 1817, British physician Dr. James Parkinson published a case series documenting six patients suffering from “shaking palsy” (paralysis agitans), a chronic and progressive neurological disorder now known as Parkinson’s disease (PD). Parkinson’s disease occurs when nerve cells in the substantia nigra, a part of the brain, deteriorate or become damaged. These cells…
Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures. These seizures result from abnormal electrical activity in the brain and can vary in type and severity. It is one of the most common neurological conditions, affecting approximately 50 million people worldwide. Pathophysiology of Epilepsy Epilepsy arises from an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory…
Disorders of sex hormones refer to conditions that result from imbalances in the production, regulation, or action of sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone). These imbalances can affect sexual development, reproductive function, and secondary sexual characteristics. Types of Disorders of sex hormones 1. Hypogonadism: Reduced function of the gonads (testes or ovaries), leading to decreased…
Thyroid diseases encompass a variety of disorders that affect the thyroid gland, a butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck that produces hormones regulating metabolism, growth, and development. The primary thyroid hormones are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Types of Thyroid diseases 1. Hypothyroidism: A condition where the thyroid gland produces insufficient amounts of thyroid hormones….
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. It can lead to serious health complications if not properly managed. Types of Diabetes 1. Type 1 Diabetes: An autoimmune condition where the body’s immune system attacks insulin-producing beta cells in…
Hemophilia is a rare genetic bleeding disorder characterized by the deficiency or dysfunction of clotting factors in the blood, primarily factor VIII (hemophilia A) or factor IX (hemophilia B). This results in prolonged or spontaneous bleeding episodes, which can lead to serious complications. This note explores the causes, types, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and management strategies…
Hereditary and Acquired Anemia: Anemia is a condition characterized by a deficiency in the number or quality of red blood cells (RBCs) or hemoglobin, leading to reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Anemia can be broadly categorized into hereditary and acquired types, based on its underlying cause. This note explores the causes, pathophysiology, symptoms, diagnosis,…
A thalassemia is a group of inherited blood disorders characterized by the body’s inability to produce sufficient and functional hemoglobin, resulting in anemia. Hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen, has two main components: alpha and beta globin chains. Thalassemia is categorized based on which globin chain is affected: alpha thalassemia…
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