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The R/S system of nomenclature is the most widely used method for designating the absolute configuration of chiral centers (stereocenters) in molecules, particularly for optical isomers (enantiomers). Developed by Robert Cahn, Christopher Ingold, and Vladimir Prelog, this system follows a set of priority rules—called the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) rules—to distinguish between two mirror-image forms (enantiomers) of … Read more
The Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority rules, also known as sequence rules, are used to assign the absolute configuration of chiral centers as R (rectus, right) or S (sinister, left). These rules provide a systematic method for ranking substituents attached to a chiral center to determine the spatial arrangement of the atoms or groups around it. 1. … Read more
The D/L system of nomenclature is a method used to describe the configuration of optical isomers, particularly for carbohydrates and amino acids. It was first introduced by Emil Fischer in the 19th century and is based on the comparison of optical isomers to a reference compound, glyceraldehyde. The system does not indicate the direction of … Read more
Introduction to Chirality Chirality is a fundamental concept in chemistry that refers to the geometric property of a molecule that makes it non-superimposable on its mirror image. The term “chiral” comes from the Greek word “cheir,” meaning “hand,” which reflects the fact that human hands are mirror images of each other but cannot be perfectly … Read more
Elements of symmetry refer to specific geometric features or operations that describe the spatial arrangement of molecules or crystals. These features allow a molecule or crystal to be manipulated in space (rotated, reflected, or inverted) and still retain its original orientation or appearance. Symmetry plays a crucial role in understanding the properties of molecules and … Read more
Stereo isomerism is a type of isomerism where compounds with the same molecular formula differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms, leading to distinct physical, chemical, and biological properties. Unlike structural isomers, which differ in connectivity, stereoisomers have identical connectivity but vary in three-dimensional orientation. Stereo isomerism is divided into two main categories: 1. Geometrical … Read more
1. What is Multiple Correlation? Multiple correlation is a statistical technique used to examine the relationship between one dependent variable and two or more independent (predictor) variables simultaneously. It helps in understanding how well a set of variables together can predict or explain changes in another variable. It is an extension of simple (bivariate) correlation, … Read more
1. Definition of Correlation Karl Pearsons Coefficient of Correlation: Correlation is a statistical technique used to measure and describe the strength and direction of a relationship between two quantitative variables. It helps determine whether, and to what degree, a change in one variable is associated with a change in another. In simpler terms, correlation answers … Read more
Introduction to Measures of Dispersion While measures of central tendency (like mean, median, and mode) provide a summary value representing the center of a dataset, they do not tell us how the data points are spread out around that center. This spread or variability is known as dispersion. In the context of pharmaceutical research and … Read more
Measures of central tendency are statistical tools used to describe the center or typical value of a dataset. In other words, they help summarize a large set of data into a single value that represents the whole. The three primary measures of central tendency are Mean, Median, and Mode. These measures are crucial in pharmaceutical … Read more
