Introduction Sex determination is a biological and genetic mechanism by which the sexual identity of an organism—male or female—is established during embryonic development. It represents one of the most fascinating and complex processes in developmental biology, integrating genetic, molecular, and hormonal cues that orchestrate the differentiation of gonads and the subsequent development of secondary sexual … Read more
1. Thalamus Anatomical Location and Structure The thalamus is a large, ovoid mass of gray matter situated deep within the brain, forming the dorsal part of the diencephalon. It lies on either side of the third ventricle and is separated from each other by the narrow slit of this ventricle. Each thalamus is divided into … Read more
The midbrain, also known as the mesencephalon, is the uppermost part of the brainstem, positioned between the pons below and the diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus) above. Despite being one of the smaller regions of the brainstem, it is a vital conduit and integration center for sensory and motor pathways. The midbrain plays an essential role … Read more
The cerebellum, often referred to as the “little brain,” is a crucial component of the central nervous system (CNS) situated posteriorly in the cranial cavity, beneath the occipital lobes of the cerebrum and behind the brainstem. Although it constitutes only about 10% of the brain’s total volume, it contains more than 50% of all neurons, … Read more
The cerebrum represents the largest and most highly developed part of the human brain. It is the seat of higher cognitive functions, voluntary motor control, sensory perception, language, reasoning, memory, and emotion. Anatomically, it forms the superior portion of the brain and accounts for nearly 80% of its total weight. Functionally, the cerebrum integrates complex … Read more
1. Hypertension Hypertension, commonly known as high blood pressure, is a chronic medical disorder characterized by persistently elevated arterial pressure in the systemic circulation. Clinically, it is defined as a sustained systolic blood pressure ≥140 mmHg and/or a diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg measured on multiple occasions under standardized conditions. Elaboration:Hypertension is often asymptomatic in … Read more
Definition and Scope of Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy and physiology are two closely related fields of study within the field of biology that focus on understanding the structure and function of living organisms, particularly the human body. They provide essential knowledge for various disciplines, including medicine, biology, and healthcare. 1. Anatomy: Definition: Anatomy is the … Read more
Introduction to Immunoglobulins Immunoglobulins (Ig), commonly known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and plasma cells in response to the presence of antigens. They are essential components of the adaptive immune system, functioning as the humoral arm of immunity. Immunoglobulins are crucial for recognition, neutralization, and elimination of pathogens including bacteria, viruses, … Read more
Introduction to Immunity The term immunity is derived from the Latin word immunitas, meaning “freedom from” or “exemption.” In biological terms, immunity refers to the ability of a living organism to resist or eliminate invading infectious agents, foreign particles, and harmful substances. It is a complex, highly organized defense system involving a network of specialized … Read more
1. Introduction The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a groundbreaking molecular biology technique that enables the selective amplification of a specific DNA sequence from a tiny amount of starting genetic material. This technique was developed by Kary Mullis in 1983, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993. PCR has revolutionized … Read more
