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Citral: Isolation, Identification, and Analysis of Phytoconstituents

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Introduction The study of phytoconstituents, particularly terpenoids like citral, holds immense importance in the field of phytochemistry and natural product pharmacology. Citral is a lemon-scented aldehyde widely distributed in the essential oils of several medicinal and aromatic plants. It is primarily known for its flavoring, fragrance, and therapeutic applications in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical … Read more

Introduction to Autacoids and Classification of Histamine

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Introduction to Autacoids The word autacoid originates from the Greek words “autos” (self) and “akos” (remedy or healing). Literally, autacoids mean “self-remedy” or “self-healing” substances. In pharmacology, autacoids are defined as biologically active chemical substances produced by the body that exert local effects, generally close to the site of their synthesis, and are subsequently metabolized … Read more

Parenteral Products: Production Procedure etc

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1. Production Procedure 1.1 Formulation Development The production of parenteral products begins with formulation development, where the active pharmaceutical ingredient is carefully selected along with appropriate excipients and a vehicle, typically Water for Injectixon. Excipients such as buffers, stabilizers, tonicity adjusters, and preservatives are incorporated to maintain solution stability, control pH, ensure isotonicity, and prevent … Read more

Parenteral Products: Production Procedure, Production etc

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1. Introduction Parenteral products are sterile preparations intended for administration by injection, infusion, or implantation into the human or animal body. Unlike oral formulations, they bypass the gastrointestinal tract and enter directly into the systemic circulation or localized tissues. Because of this, sterility, pyrogen-free status, particulate-free nature, isotonicity, and safety are critical quality attributes. Parenterals … Read more

Preformulation Factors and Essential Requirements

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1. Preformulation Factors Preformulation is the initial phase in the development of a pharmaceutical dosage form, where the physical and chemical properties of the drug substance are studied to design a stable, safe, and effective formulation. In parenteral products, preformulation is especially critical due to the sterile nature and direct entry into systemic circulation. Key … Read more

Parenteral Products: Definition, Types, Advantages, and Limitations

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Parenteral products are sterile pharmaceutical preparations intended for administration by injection, infusion, or implantation into the body. These products bypass the gastrointestinal tract, making them essential for patients who cannot take medications orally due to various medical conditions. The term “parenteral” is derived from the Greek words para (beside) and enteron (intestine), meaning that the … Read more

Antidiuretics (Antidiuretic Agents)

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Antidiuretics are pharmacological agents that reduce urine formation by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys. These agents conserve body water and are essential in the treatment of conditions like diabetes insipidus, nocturnal enuresis, and some forms of hypotension. The primary natural antidiuretic hormone in the body is vasopressin (ADH), secreted by the posterior pituitary gland. … Read more

Diuretics

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Diuretics are pharmacological agents that promote the excretion of water and electrolytes (primarily sodium and chloride) from the body via the kidneys, increasing urine output. They are primarily used in the management of hypertension, edematous states (such as congestive heart failure, hepatic cirrhosis, and nephrotic syndrome), and certain renal disorders. By altering renal sodium handling, … Read more

Plasma Volume Expanders

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Plasma volume expanders are a diverse group of pharmacological agents and intravenous solutions used to restore and maintain the circulating blood volume, especially in cases of hypovolemia due to trauma, hemorrhage, burns, shock, or surgical procedures. They act by increasing plasma osmotic or oncotic pressure, thereby drawing fluid from the interstitial and intracellular spaces into … Read more

Anti-Platelet Drugs

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Definition Anti-platelet drugs, also known as platelet aggregation inhibitors, are pharmacological agents that interfere with platelet activation and aggregation—key processes in the formation of blood clots (thrombi). Unlike anticoagulants, which act on the coagulation cascade, anti-platelet agents primarily act by inhibiting platelet adhesion, activation, and aggregation, thereby reducing the risk of arterial thrombotic events such … Read more