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INTRODUCTION Antibiotics, also known as antimicrobial agents, are medications that destroy or slow down the growth of other species of microorganisms. They include a range of powerful drugs used to treat diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, etc. Or The term antibiotic originates in the word antibiosis (i.e. against life). Antibiotics are chemical substances obtained … Read more
परिचय भारत में हेल्थकेयर सेक्टर तेजी से बढ़ रहा है और इसके साथ ही मेडिकल डायग्नोस्टिक सेवाओं की मांग भी कई गुना बढ़ गई है। किसी भी बीमारी के सही और सटीक इलाज के लिए उसका डायग्नोसिस जरूरी होता है। यह जिम्मेदारी डॉक्टरों के साथ-साथ मेडिकल लैब टेक्नोलॉजिस्ट की भी होती है। इसी प्रोफेशन में … Read more
Asymmetric synthesis refers to the production of chiral molecules with a specific enantiomeric configuration. The goal is to preferentially synthesize one enantiomer over the other, which is crucial in fields like pharmaceuticals, where the activity and safety of a drug can depend on its enantiomeric purity. Asymmetric synthesis can be categorized into partial and absolute … Read more
Racemic modification refers to the process of creating a racemic mixture, which is an equimolar mixture of two enantiomers (mirror-image isomers) of a chiral compound. A racemic mixture shows no optical activity because the optical rotations of the enantiomers cancel each other out. On the other hand, the resolution of a racemic mixture involves separating … Read more
Chiral molecules, due to their non-superimposable mirror images (enantiomers), exhibit unique behavior in chemical reactions. These reactions are critical in understanding stereochemistry and play an essential role in organic chemistry, pharmaceuticals, and biology. The outcome of reactions involving chiral molecules depends on factors like the nature of the reactants, the reagents, and the reaction conditions. … Read more
The R/S system of nomenclature is the most widely used method for designating the absolute configuration of chiral centers (stereocenters) in molecules, particularly for optical isomers (enantiomers). Developed by Robert Cahn, Christopher Ingold, and Vladimir Prelog, this system follows a set of priority rules—called the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) rules—to distinguish between two mirror-image forms (enantiomers) of … Read more
The Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority rules, also known as sequence rules, are used to assign the absolute configuration of chiral centers as R (rectus, right) or S (sinister, left). These rules provide a systematic method for ranking substituents attached to a chiral center to determine the spatial arrangement of the atoms or groups around it. 1. … Read more
The D/L system of nomenclature is a method used to describe the configuration of optical isomers, particularly for carbohydrates and amino acids. It was first introduced by Emil Fischer in the 19th century and is based on the comparison of optical isomers to a reference compound, glyceraldehyde. The system does not indicate the direction of … Read more
Pathophysiology previous year question papers 2019-2025 Welcome to Pharmaacademias – your go-to destination for accessing and downloading previous year question papers with answers in the field of pharmaceutical studies. At Pharmaacademias, we understand the significance of past exam papers as valuable resources for exam preparation. Why Choose Pharmaacademias? Comprehensive Collection: Explore an extensive repository of … Read more
Introduction to Chirality Chirality is a fundamental concept in chemistry that refers to the geometric property of a molecule that makes it non-superimposable on its mirror image. The term “chiral” comes from the Greek word “cheir,” meaning “hand,” which reflects the fact that human hands are mirror images of each other but cannot be perfectly … Read more
