Antidiuretics are pharmacological agents that reduce urine formation by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys. These agents conserve body water and are essential in the treatment of conditions like diabetes insipidus, nocturnal enuresis, and some forms of hypotension. The primary natural antidiuretic hormone in the body is vasopressin (ADH), secreted by the posterior pituitary gland.
Key Concept:
- Diuretics increase urine output by promoting sodium and water excretion.
- Anti-diuretics decrease urine output by enhancing water reabsorption, mostly through the action of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or its analogs.
Classification of Antidiuretic Agents
A. Hormonal Anti-diuretics:
These mimic or enhance the activity of vasopressin (ADH).
Natural ADH (Vasopressin) It is a nonapeptide hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary. Vasopressin has a short half-life and exerts its effects by acting on V1 and V2 receptors, playing a key role in water retention and vasoconstriction.
Synthetic ADH Analogues:
Synthetic ADH analogues are man-made drugs that mimic the action of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin. They act primarily on the V2 receptors in the kidney’s collecting ducts to increase water reabsorption, thereby reducing urine output. These agents are used in conditions characterized by excessive water loss, such as diabetes insipidus or nocturnal enuresis.
Example: Desmopressin (DDAVP), Terlipressin, Lypressin, Felypressin
B. Drugs Stimulating ADH Secretion:
Drugs that stimulate antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion enhance the release of endogenous vasopressin from the posterior pituitary. This leads to increased water reabsorption in the renal collecting ducts, decreased urine output, and concentration of urine. Such drugs may be used in diagnostic procedures or may cause SIADH (Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH Secretion) as an adverse effect.
Example: Chlorpropamide, Carbamazepine, Clofibrate, Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)
C. Vasopressin Receptor Agonists:
Vasopressin receptor agonists are drugs that mimic the action of endogenous vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH) by selectively or non-selectively stimulating vasopressin receptors (V1, V2, and V3). These receptors mediate different physiological effects such as vasoconstriction, water reabsorption, and ACTH release.
- Selective V2 agonists: Desmopressin.
- Mixed V1/V2 agonists: Vasopressin, Terlipressin.
Mechanism of Action (MOA):
Primary Site of Action: Collecting ducts of the nephron.
ADH or Desmopressin Action:
- Binds to V2 receptors on the basolateral membrane of principal cells in the collecting duct.
- Activates adenylyl cyclase → ↑ cAMP → activates Protein Kinase A (PKA).
- PKA promotes insertion of aquaporin-2 water channels into the apical membrane.
- Water is reabsorbed passively due to the hypertonic medullary interstitium.
- Result: Concentrated urine, decreased water excretion.
V1 Receptor Action (Vasopressin & Terlipressin):
- Found on vascular smooth muscle.
- Causes vasoconstriction → increases blood pressure.
- Also used in bleeding esophageal varices due to splanchnic vasoconstriction.
Pharmacokinetics:
| Drug | Route | Half-life | Receptor Selectivity |
| Vasopressin | IV, IM | 10–20 min | V1 = V2 |
| Desmopressin | Oral, IN, IV | 1.5–2 hrs | Selective V2 agonist |
| Terlipressin | IV | 4–6 hrs | More V1 selective |
Therapeutic Uses
1. Diabetes Insipidus (DI):
Central DI: Caused by lack of ADH secretion. Treated with Desmopressin (drug of choice).
Nephrogenic DI: Caused by renal resistance to ADH. Thiazide diuretics and indomethacin are used; ADH analogs are ineffective.
2. Nocturnal Enuresis (Bed-wetting):
Desmopressin nasal spray or tablets reduce nocturnal urine production.
3. Hemophilia A and von Willebrand Disease:
Desmopressin stimulates release of Factor VIII and von Willebrand factor from endothelium.
4. Bleeding Esophageal Varices:
Vasopressin and Terlipressin cause splanchnic vasoconstriction → reduced portal pressure.
5. Post-lumbar Puncture Headache (off-label):
Desmopressin has been used due to fluid retention effects.
6. Hypotension/Shock:
Vasopressin acts as a vasoconstrictor in vasodilatory shock (e.g., septic shock).
Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs)
1. Water Retention and Hyponatremia:
- Especially with desmopressin due to potent antidiuretic effect.
- May lead to seizures and cerebral edema in severe cases.
2. Vasoconstriction and Ischemia:
- Seen with vasopressin and terlipressin due to V1 receptor stimulation.
- May lead to coronary ischemia, hypertension, or gangrene.
3. Headache, Flushing, and Abdominal Cramps:
- Common with vasopressin due to smooth muscle effects.
4. Nasal Irritation (with intranasal desmopressin):
- Rhinitis, congestion, and epistaxis may occur.
5. Hypersensitivity Reactions:
- Rare but include rash and anaphylaxis.
Contraindications and Cautions
| Drug | Contraindications |
| Desmopressin | Hyponatremia, heart failure, fluid overload |
| Vasopressin | CAD, asthma, epilepsy, pregnancy (caution) |
New Developments:
- Vasopressin receptor modulators are being explored for managing hyponatremia and shock.
- Vaptans (like Tolvaptan) are vasopressin antagonists, used in SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion)—they are opposite of anti-diuretics but worth noting for balance.
Comparison: Vasopressin vs Desmopressin
| Feature | Vasopressin | Desmopressin |
| Half-life | 10–20 min | 1.5–2 hrs |
| Receptor selectivity | V1 = V2 | V2 selective |
| Vasoconstriction | Yes (V1 action) | Minimal |
| Route | IV/IM | Oral, intranasal, IV |
| Main use | Bleeding, shock | Central DI, enuresis |
Summary:
Anti-diuretic drugs, especially ADH analogs like desmopressin, play a crucial role in fluid homeostasis, treatment of central diabetes insipidus, nocturnal enuresis, and hemostatic disorders. While effective, they require cautious use to prevent water intoxication, hyponatremia, and vascular complications. Proper dosing, patient education, and electrolyte monitoring are essential to ensure safe and effective therapy.